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To the right of the frame, a Wedge-tailed Eagle is perched on a curved branch with wings outstretched against a blurred pastel background.
Photographed by Dave Wetherall

Rodenticide reference list

A list of Australian and international studies on rodenticides and their impacts on Australian animals.

Australian and international studies have proven SGARs pose lethal risks to birds.

Dangerous levels of SGARs have been found in studies on dead Australian birds including: Powerful Owls, Southern Boobooks, Wedge-tailed Eagles, Tawny Frogmouths, and more.

We have compiled a list of scientific papers showing the impacts of rodenticides on Australian animals.

The reference list has been split between studies done in Australia and those done overseas. The international studies referenced below are primarily those on animal species most relevant to Australia’s environment, e.g. Australian Magpies studied in New Zealand, Barn Owls or domestic dogs across the world, etc.

Note, this reference list is being updated as studies emerge.

Australian studies

  • Birdlife Australia (2021). Anticoagulant Toxicity of Urban Powerful Owls in New South Wales. Unpublished Data
  • Bettink, K. (2015). Control and Eradication of Black Rats (Rattus rattus) on Penguin Island, Western Australia, December 2012–December 2014 Perth, Western Australia
  • Cisterne, A., Pay, J., Crates, R., & Stojanovic, D. (2023) Can population models be a useful tool for evaluating the status of data-deficient species? Global Ecology and Conservation, 48, e02708
  • Clarke, J., Zehntner, N., Hutchinson, J. P., Rodas Ceballos, M., Tedone, L., & Jordan, T. B. (2025) Unmasking the impact of second-generation anticoagulant rodenticides on Masked owls (Tyto novaehollandiae castanops) in Tasmania. Emu – Austral Ornithology, 125: 191-198
  • Cooke, R., Whiteley, P., Jin, Y., Death, C., Weston, M. A., Carter, N., & White, J. G. (2022). Widespread exposure of powerful owls to second-generation anticoagulant rodenticides in Australia spans an urban to agricultural and forest landscape. Science of the Total Environment, 819: 153024
  • Cooke, R., Whiteley, P., Death, C., Weston, M. A., Carter, N., Scammel, K., Yokochi, K., Nguyen, H., & White, J. G. (2023). Silent killers? The widespread exposure of predatory nocturnal birds to anticoagulant rodenticides. Science of the Total Environment, 904: 166293.
  • Debus, S. (2012). Norfolk Island Boobook chick deaths. Boobook, 30, 6
  • Debus, S., & Tsang, L. (2023) Further dietary samples for Eastern Barn Owls Tyto javanica near Tamworth, New South Wales, revealed by habitat clearance. Australian Field Ornithology, 40, 46-48
  • Duncan, B. J. M. L., Koenders, A., Burnham, Q., & Lohr, M. T. (2020) Mus musculus populations in Western Australia lack VKORC1 mutations conferring resistance to first generation anticoagulant rodenticides: Implications for conservation and biosecurity. PLOS ONE, 15 e0236234
  • Gorbould, A. F., Burnham, Q. F., Lohr, M. T., & Koenders, A. (2025) Detection of Vkorc1 single nucleotidepolymorphisms indicates the presence ofanticoagulant rodenticide resistance inAustralia’s introduced rats. Pest Management Science, doi: 10.1002/ps.8936. Epub ahead of print.
  • Grillo, T., Cox-Witton, K., Gilchrist, S., & Ban, S. (2016). Suspected rodenticide poisoning in possums. Animal Heath Surveillance Quarterly, 21, 8
  • La Souëf, A., Lohr, M., Vaughan-Higgins, R., Wood, K., & Coiacetto, F. (2024) Second-Generation Anticoagulant Rodenticide Toxicosis in a Wild Carnaby’s Cockatoo (Zanda latirostris). Journal of Avian Medicine and Surgery. 38:162-166
  • Lettoof, D., Lohr, M., Busetti, F., Bateman, P., & Davis, R. (2020). Toxic time bombs: Frequent detection of anticoagulant rodenticides in urban reptiles at multiple trophic levels. Science of the Total Environment, 724, 138218
  • Lohr, M. T. (2018). Anticoagulant rodenticide exposure in an Australian predatory bird increases with proximity to developed habitat. Science of the Total Environment, 643, 134-144
  • Lohr, M. T., & Davis, R. A. (2018). Anticoagulant rodenticide use, non-target impacts and regulation: A case study from Australia. Science of The Total Environment, 634, 1372–1384
  • Lohr, M. T., Lohr, C.A., Dunlop, J., Snape, M., Pulsford, S., Webb, E., & Davis, R. A. (2025). Widespread detection of second generation anticoagulant rodenticides in Australian native marsupial carnivores. Science of The Total Environment, 967, 178832
  • Low, Z., Murray, P. J., Naseem, N., McGilp, D., Doneley, B., Beale, D. J., Biggs, L., & Gonzalez-Astudillo, V. (2024). Evaluating sublethal anticoagulant rodenticide exposure in deceased predatory birds of South‑East Queensland, Australia. Discover Toxicology, 1, 13, doi: 10.1007/s44339-024-00016-4
  • Mooney, N. (2017). Risks of anticoagulant rodenticides to Tasmanian raptors. Tasmanian Bird Report, 38, 17-25
  • O’Dwyer, T. W., Carlile, N., O’Neill, L., Fairlamb, H., & Bower, H.. (2024) Protection and mortality of non-target terrestrial bird species during the eradication of rodents on Lord Howe Island. Biological Invasions, 26, 151-167
  • Palmer, R. (2014). Eradication of the Pacific Rat (Rattus exulans) from Adele Island Nature Reserve, Western Australia: Impacts of the October 2013 aerial baiting on non-target species. Western Australia Department of Parks and Wildlife, Wanneroo, Western Australia
  • Pay, J. M., Katzner, T. E., Hawkins, C. E., Barmuta, L. A., Brown, W. E., Wiersma, J. M., Koch, A. J., Mooney, N. J., & Cameron, E. Z. (2021). Endangered Australian top predator is frequently exposed to anticoagulant rodenticides. Science of the Total Environment, 788, 147673
  • Priddel, D., Carlile, N. & Wheeler, R. (2000). Eradication of European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) from Cabbage Tree Island, NSW, Australia, to protect the breeding habitat of Gould’s petrel (Pterodroma leucoptera leucoptera). Biological Conservation. 94, 115–125
  • Reece, R., Scott, P., Forsyth, W., Gould, J., & Barr, D. (1985). Toxicity episodes involving agricultural chemicals and other substances in birds in Victoria, Australia. The Veterinary Record, 117, 525-527
  • Rowley, J. J. L., Symons, A., Doyle, C., Hall, J., Rose, K., Stapp, L. Lettoof, D. C. (2024). Broad-scale pesticide screening finds anticoagulant rodenticide and legacy pesticides in Australian frogs. Science of The Total Environment, 930, 172526
  • Saunders, G., Kay, B., & Parker, B. (1990). Evaluation of a warfarin poisoning programme for feral pigs (Sus scrofa). Wildlife Research, 17, 525-533
  • Scammell,K., Cooke, R., Yokochi, K., Carter, N., Nguyen, H., & White, J. G. (2024) The missing toxic link: Exposure of non-target native marsupials to second-generation anticoagulant rodenticides (SGARs) suggest a potential route of transfer into apex predators. Science of the Total Environment, 933: 173191
  • Sperring, V. F., Weeks, A. R., Webster, W., Macgregor, N. A., Wilson, M., Isaac, B., & Clarke, R. H. (2024). Diet breadth of a critically endangered owl presents challenges for invasive rodent management: a conservation conundrum. Emu – Austral Ornithology, 124, 187–198
  • Tasmania Parks and Wildlife Sevice (2014). Evaluation Report: Macquarie Island Pest Eradication Project. Hobart, Tasmania
  • Thomas, M., & Kutt, A. (1997). Owl populations and habitat: factors that could impact populations of native owls in the sugarcane growing areas in Queensland. Australian Centre for Tropical Freshwater Research. James Cook University of North Queensland, Townsville
  • Wildlife Heath Australia (2022). 2021 APVMA consultation on anticoagulant rodenticides chemical review. Online. WildLife Health Australia: WHA Submissions & Publications. Accessed 28 Jun 2022. Available at: https://wildlifehealthaustralia.com.au/WHADocuments/WHAsubmissionspublications.aspx
  • Wildlife Health Australia (2021). National electronic Wildlife Health Information System (eWHIS) surveillance data. Confidential Data. Data requests via: https://wildlifehealthaustralia.com.au/ProgramsProjects/eWHIS-WildlifeHealthInformationSystem.aspx#requests
  • Young, J., & De Lai, L. (1997). Population declines of predatory birds coincident with the introduction of Klerat rodenticide in North Queensland. Australian Bird Watcher, 17, 160-167

International studies

  • Allsop, S. E., Dundas, S. J., Adams, P. J., Kreplins, T. L., Bateman, P. W., & Fleming, P. A. (2017). Reduced efficacy of baiting programs for invasive species: some mechanisms and management implications. Pacific Conservation Biology, 23, 240-257
  • Alomar, H., Chabert, A., Coeurdassier, M., Vey, D., & Berny, P. (2018). Accumulation of anticoagulant rodenticides (chlorophacinone, bromadiolone and brodifacoum) in a non-target invertebrate, the slug, Deroceras reticulatum. Science of The Total Environment, 610-611, 576–582
  • Berny, P., Velardo, J., Pulce, C., D’amico, A., Kammerer, M., & Lasseur, R. (2010) Prevalence of anticoagulant rodenticide poisoning in humans and animals in France and substances involved. Clinical Toxicology. 48, 935–941
  • Bowie, M. H., & Ross, J. G. (2006). Identification of weta foraging on brodifacoum bait and the risk of secondary poisoning for birds on Quail Island, Canterbury, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Ecology, 30, 219–228
  • Campbell, A. (1999). Common causes of poisoning in small animals. In Practice, 21, 244–249
  • Christensen, T. K., Lassen, P., & Elmeros, M. (2012). High Exposure Rates of Anticoagulant Rodenticides in Predatory Bird Species in Intensively Managed Landscapes in Denmark. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 63, 437–444
  • Dowding, J. E., Murphy, E. C., & Veitch, C. R. (1999) “Brodifacoum residues in target and non-target species following an aerial poisoning operation on Motuihe Island, Hauraki Gulf, New Zealand.” New Zealand Journal of Ecology, 23, 207–14
  • Eason, C. T., Murphy, E. C., Wright, G. R. G., & Spurr, E. B. (2002). Assessment of Risks of Brodifacoum to Non-target Birds and Mammals in New Zealand. Ecotoxicology, 11, 35–48
  • Eason, C. T., & Spurr, E. B. (1995). The Toxicity and Sub-lethal Effects of Brodifacoum in Birds and Bats: A Literature Review. Science for Conservation, 6, 35–48
  • Elliott, J. E., Hindmarch, S., Albert, C. A., Emery, J., Minaeu, P., & Maisonneuve, F. (2014) Exposure pathways of anticoagulant rodenticides to nontarget wildlife. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 186, 895-906
  • Fisher, P., Griffiths, R., Speedy, C., & Broome, K., 2011. Environmental monitoring for brodifacoum residues after aerial application of baits for rodent eradication. In: Veitch, C.R., Clout, M.N., Towns, D.R. (Eds.), Island Invasives: Eradication and Management. IUCN; Gland, Switzerland: pp. 300–304
  • Kotthoff, M., Rüdel, H., Jürling, H., Severin, K., Hennecke, S., Friesen, A. & Koschorreck, J. (2019). First evidence of anticoagulant rodenticides in fish and suspended particulate matter: spatial and temporal distribution in German freshwater aquatic systems. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 26, 7315–7325
  • Lambert, O., Pouliquen, H., Larhantec, M., Thorin, C., & L’Hostis, M. (2007). Exposure of Raptors and Waterbirds to Anticoagulant Rodenticides (Difenacoum, Bromadiolone, Coumatetralyl, Coumafen, Brodifacoum): Epidemiological Survey in Loire Atlantique (France). Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 79, 91–94
  • Mahjoub, T., Krafft, E., Garnier, L., Mignard, A., Hugnet, C., Lefebvre, S., Fourel, I., Benoit, E., & Lattard, V. (2022) Asymptomatic Anticoagulant Rodenticide Exposure in Dogs and Cats-A French and Belgian Rural and Urban Areas Study. Frontiers in Toxicology. 4, 907892. doi: 10.3389/ftox.2022.907892
  • Masuda, B. M., Fisher, P., & Jamieson, I. G. (2014) Anticoagulant rodenticide brodifacoum detected in dead nestlings of an insectivorous passerine. New Zealand Journal of Ecology, 38, 110–115
  • Mercer, M. A., Davis, J. L., Riviere, J. E., Baynes, R. E., Tell, L. A., Jaberi-Douraki, M., Maunsell, F. P., & Lin, Z. (2022). Mechanisms of toxicity and residue considerations of rodenticide exposure in food Animals—a FARAD perspective. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 260(5), 514-523
  • Nakayama, S. M. M., Morita, A., Ikenaka, Y., Mizukawa, H. & Ishizuka M. (2019). A review: poisoning by anticoagulant rodenticides in non-target animals globally. The Journal of Veterinary Medical Science, 81, 298-313
  • Oliva-Vidal, P., Martínez, J. M., Sánchez-Barbudo, I. S., Camarero, P. R., Colomer, M. A., Margalida, A., & Mateo, R. (2022) Second-generation anticoagulant rodenticides in the blood of obligate and facultative European avian scavengers. Environmental Pollution, 315, 120385
  • Seljetun, K. O., Vindenes, V., Øiestad, E. L. Brochmann, G. W., Eliassen, E., & Moe, L. (2020) Determination of anticoagulant rodenticides in faeces of exposed dogs and in a healthy dog population. Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica. 62, 30
  • Shimshoni, J.A., Soback, S., Cuneah, O., Shlosberg, A., & Britzi, M. (2013) New validated multiresidue analysis of six 4-hydroxy-coumarin anticoagulant rodenticides in hen eggs. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation. 25(6), 736-743
  • Valverde, I., Espín, S., Gómez-Ramírez, P., Navas, I., Sánchez-Virosta, P., Torres-Chaparro, M.Y., Jiménez, P., María-Mojica, P. & García-Fernández, A. J. (2020) Temporal Persistence of Bromadiolone in Decomposing Bodies of Common Kestrel (Falco tinnunculus). Toxics. 8(4), 98
  • Vyas, N. B. (2017). Rodenticide incidents of exposure and adverse effects on non-raptor birds. Science of The Total Environment, 609, 68–76

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